Mission Ocean

Minerals and Energy

Global oil consumption has doubled since the late 1960s, and natural gas consumption more than tripled. Demand for copper has quadrupled since 1960, while rare earth elements – hardly used before 1950 – are in increasing demand for new technologies. As resources on land dwindle, businesses turn to the ocean.

Genetic Materials

Marine genetic resources show great promise for application in pharmaceuticals and biotechnology. There is breakthrough activity against HIV, cancer, TB cystic fibrosis and malaria.

Living Marine Resources

The global fish catch has quadrupled since the 1950s and contributes roughly 16% of the animal protein consumed globally. Deep-sea species such as corals and sponges are being studied for uses in medicines for cancer, arthritis and other conditions. 18,000 products are already made from marine organisms.

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Deep-sea access and exploitation

A third of oil is extracted from under the seabed, and deep-sea rigs produce 5% of total hydrocarbons, with some wells deeper than 3km. Deep-sea mineral mining is now technically feasible. Bottom trawl fishing extends below 2,200m across all oceans. The next logical steps for the fossil fuel industry are expansion into the Arctic as summer sea ice disappears, and exploitation of methane hydrates.

Vessels (distance and depth)

Since the 1950s, increasingly powerful engines, bigger equipment and refrigeration have allowed vessels to travel progressively further and catch greater quantities of fish. Engine power facilitates the use of bigger trawls and longer lines ; bottom trawling would be impossible with less power.

Increased (over-)extraction

The sophistication of equipment has increased the industry’s efficiency. Longlines up to 60km long are now deployed in the high seas. Fish are detected and corralled using sonar and fish aggregation devices (FADs).

Destructive fishing and other activities

These trawlers cause extensive damage to vulnerable deep sea ecosystems, through, for example, the indiscriminate crushing and ploughing of cold water corals on seamounts with huge nets and giant steel plates, and because of the large quantities of bycatch of highly vulnerable deep sea species. Estimates of the area damaged by deep sea trawling exceeds 25 million hectares.

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Overfishing

FAO estimates that about two-thirds of fish stocks are exploited to their maximum sustainable limit, and one-third beyond that limit. Two-thirds of high seas stocks are overexploited and/or depleted. Many stocks of the largest fish (such as tuna and swordfish) are below 10% of their historical level. The World Bank calculates that mismanagement of fisheries costs the world economy about $50 billion per year.

Overcapacity

The global catch increased from 18 million tonnes in 1950 to nearly 94 million tonnes in 1994. The global fleet’s overall engine power grew 10-fold over the period. The catch is now falling due to declining stocks, but capacity continues to rise; ships use twice as much energy to catch a tonne of fish as 60 years ago. Too many vessels are competing for increasingly exploited stocks, increasing the imperative to fish illegally.

Subsidies

Despite overfishing and overcapacity, countries grant at least $30bn a year in fishing subsidies, 60% of which directly encourages unsustainable practices. Fuel subsidies are the biggest component. Developed countries give 70% of fishing subsidies, with Japan, China, the EU, the US and Russia the highest spenders.

IUU Fishing

Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing accounts for up to 35% of the global wild marine catch and causes annual losses of up to $23.5bn. Half of the value of the illegal catch comes from the high seas. IUU fishing is linked to other international crimes such as drug, weapon and people smuggling.

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Climate change and acidification

The ocean absorbs more than 90% of the energy trapped in the Earth system by greenhouse gas emissions and absorbs a quarter of our carbon dioxide emissions. This has created a ‘deadly trio’ of impacts on the ocean – acidification, warming and deoxygenation.

Acidification

Today’s level of acidification is unparalleled in the last 300 million years. Biological impacts include displacement of organisms away from breeding and feeding grounds, reduced formation of shells and a reduction in the living space for large fish.

Pollution

Over 80% of marine pollution comes from land-based activities, including fertilisers, pesticides, sewage, garbage, plastics and oil. Disposal at sea of the most toxic materials was banned by the 1972 London Convention, with more restrictions added in 1996. However, the toxins already present, combined with the unregulated dumping of “emerging chemicals” and ubiquitous plastic pollution, remain a major challenge.

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Patchwork/sectoral/incomplete governance

The existing high seas governance framework is weak, fragmented and poorly implemented. It is sectoral, with different bodies regulating different industries, and not based on modern ecosystem understanding. Regional Fisheries Management Organizations (RFMOs) are legally charged with managing high-seas fisheries, but concentrate on a few commercial stocks. Their effectiveness varies widely; reviews have found flaws with all. No organisation has overall responsibility for conserving high seas biodiversity, and in most of the high seas there is no legal mechanism for establishing marine protected areas.

Weak compliance and lack of enforcement

For fishing, there is little capacity for enforcement of regulations or sanctions for non-compliance. RFMO rules apply only to member States. Authorities have limited power to intercept vessels suspected of illegal activity. Fishing vessels are exempt from the requirement to carry an International Maritime Organization (IMO) number and use tracking equipment, which is mandatory on passenger and large merchant ships.

New and emerging issues

There is no governance framework for industries such as energy production and geoengineering that may emerge in the high seas. There is no equity framework for exploitation of genetic resources.

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